 |
 ___ The Brain: Anatomy, Functions & Disorders ___ |
Contact us »
Links »
Brain Maps: Brain Anatomy, Functions and Disorders
|
Quick links to brain regions:
ACC,
Amygdala,
Basal ganglia,
Brainstem,
Broca's region,
Cingulate,
Dentate Gyrus,
Hindbrain,
Hippocampus,
Hypothalamus,
Insula,
LPFC,
Mammillary body,
Midbrain,
MPFC,
Occipital lobe,
OFC,
Parietal lobe,
PCC,
Pineal gland,
PMA,
Precuneus,
Red nucleus,
Temporal lobe,
Thalamus,
TPJ
Neurological disorders: Addiction, ADHD, Alzheimer's Disease, Amnesia, Anorexia Nervosa, Anxiety Disorders, Autism, Bipolar Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, Depression, Epilepsy, Huntington's Disease, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Parkinson's Disease, Pedophilia, Posttraumatic SD, Schizophrenia, Tourette Syndrome Systems: The Reward System Please move your mouse over the image
and follow the links that appear (rough allocation only).
Do you like this page? Feel free to Or to transfer your donation to the following account: IBAN: DE66 8605 5592 1852 1753 18, BIC-/SWIFT: WELADE8LXXX, Account holder: Marie Lehmann. Thank you very much for your support! |
The following table shows the brain regions from the cortex to the brain stem
with their functions and associated disorders in English, German
and Latin. All references (mainly links
to abstracts) are only given in place of many other studies that point towards the same function
or disorder. Neither do they represent the first nor the only or most important or valid
finding in this area. Their main purpose is to encourage further study on these subjects.
Our selection of a specific reference does not represent an evaluation of the respective study or
finding per se or in comparison with other studies.
If you feel that we have omitted an important study, function or disorder
that should definitely be included in the relevant section, or if you have any questions, comments,
additions or objections, please feel free to send us an
e-mail. Thank you for your interest!
Please click on the little pictures or links to learn more about a specific brain region (BA=Brodmann Area). One click on 'S' will lead you to the source (this will open a new tab or window). Please excuse any potential mistakes in spelling or grammar. This site was developed by a German who then translated it into (hopefully readable) American English. Please note that the execution of a certain function is never bound to one region alone but requires complex neural conduction along several pathways connecting those brain regions that are specialized in this function or contribute to it in any way (previous knowledge, flight instinct, anticipation of outcomes...) |
You might like this too: Open Colleges' interactive 3D Brain. |
|
Brain region in English |
Acronym, Latin, BA |
Brain region in German |
Functions & Disorders |
1. Forebrain
|
Prosencephalon |
Vorderhirn |
Control1.1. Telencephalon (Cerebrum) 1.2. Diencephalon |
1.1.Telencephalon
|
Tel, Cerebrum |
Endhirn, Großhirn |
Cognitive control1.1.1. Cortex1.1.2. Basal ganglia 1.1.3. Olfactory bulb |
| 1.1.1.Cerebral cortex
|
Cortex cerebri |
Großhirnrinde, Kortex |
Functions: Motor function, hearing, vision, smell, memory, cognition, speech, ego... 1.1.1.1. Parietal lobes 1.1.1.2. Occipital lobes 1.1.1.3. Insular lobes 1.1.1.4. Frontal lobes 1.1.1.5. Temporal lobes 1.1.1.6. Cingulate gyrus |
|
1.1.1.1.Parietal lobe
|
PL, Lobus parietalis, BA 1-3, 5, 7, 39, 40, 43
Picture: Brodmann Areas and their functions. Please click to enlarge. |
Parietallappen, Scheitellappen |
Functions:
Somatosensory, visuospatial, computation, reading, 'Self', selective attention (superior),
episodic memory encoding (left posterior) S
Pain (both cognitive recognition - even when only observing a situation - and processing) S Disorders: Gerstmann's Syndrome, Balint's Syndrome, Autism S, Asperger Syndrome; Huntington's Disease S 1.1.1.1.1. Anterior Parietal Cortex 1.1.1.1.2. Posterior Parietal Cortex 1.1.1.1.3. Precuneus 1.1.1.1.4. Temporoparietal Junction |
| ~ Anterior parietal cortex | APL | Vorderer Parietallappen | Function: Somatosensory |
| ~~ Postcentral gyrus | PoG, BA 3 | Postzentraler Gyrus |
Function: Primary somatosensory Disorders: Borderline PD (Dissociation, left hemisphere) S, Schizophrenia S |
| ~ Intraparietal sulcus | IPS, Sulcus intraparietalis | Intraparietaler Sulcus |
Functions: Perceptual-motor coordination (eye movements, reaching) Visual attention Processing of symbolic numeric information S, visuospatial working memory S Interpretation of the intent of others S |
Cerebral Gyri
Please click on the pictures to enlarge them. S |
|||
| ~ Posterior parietal cortex | PPL | Hinterer Parietallappen |
Functions: Visual, spatial; part of the motor cortex:
transformation of visual information into motor commands Action planning when there is response competition S |
| ~~ Superior parietal lobule | SPL, BA 5, 7 | Oberes Parietalläppchen |
Functions: Visual movement control and stimulus detection in space,
spatial attention (transition from one stimulus to the next)
Disorders: Borderline PD (Dissociation) S |
| ~~ Inferior parietal lobule | IPL, BA 39, 40 | Unteres Parietalläppchen |
Functions: Spatial thinking, "quasi-spatial"
procedures (calculation, reading), Theory of Mind ToM
S
Response inhibition S Disorders: Schizophrenia S |
~ Precuneus
|
PCu, BA 7 | Precuneus |
Functions: Visuospatial imagery, episodic memory,
self-processing operations (first-person perspective taking and an experience of agency),
self-consciousness, self-related mental representations
S,
Theory of Mind ToM
S
Communication tasks with familiar actors (with access to biographical information) S Disorders: Borderline PD (Dissociation, right hemisphere) S, Anorexia Nervosa S, Schizophrenia S |
|
~ Temporoparietal junction
|
TPJ | Temporoparietaler Übergang |
Functions: Response inhibition
S,
emotion regulation
S,
self-awareness and agency
S
Multisensory information integration S Social skills (Theory of Mind ToM S, empathy) S, understanding of social intentions (left: communicative) S, perspective differences (decoupling of beliefs from reality; false beliefs) S * Right hemisphere: Bottom-up computational processes (reorienting attention to salient stimuli, sense of agency) S, belief attribution during moral judgment S * Left hemisphere: behavioral aspects of communicative speech production (context of social interaction) S Disorder: Dissociation (here: out-of-body experience) S - zurück nach oben - |
|
1.1.1.2.Occipital lobe
|
OL, Lobus occipitalis, BA 17-19 |
Okzipitallappen, Hinterhauptslappen, visuelles System | Functions: Vision, colour recognition, (hearing) |
~ Primary and secondary visual cortex
|
V1-5, BA 17 (V1) | Primäres und sekundäres Sehzentrum | Function: Vision |
|
~ Cuneus
|
Cun | Cuneus |
Functions: Visual and spatial attention, autobiographical memory
(S)
Disorder: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S |
1.1.1.3.Insular lobe
|
IL, Lobus insularis, BA 13, 14 |
Inselrinde |
Functions: Body perception, subjective emotional
experiences, conscious emotions,
observation of noxious or disgusting stimuli
S,
Addiction (craving)
S,
empathy S,
empathy with pain S,
inequity coding S
Decision making under risk S Important part of the reward system: adjustments of motor responses following reward/ punishment S 'Pessimistic' bias: internal adaptation and preparation processes in order to act according to potential or certain unpleasant events S Response inhibition S; pain (anterior); suppression of pain (posterior) S, modulation of pain perception S Disorders: Addiction, PTSD S, S (right, anterior), Depression S, S; Huntington's Disease S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, S, Tinnitus S |
1.1.1.4.Frontal lobe
|
LF, Lobus frontalis, BA 4, 6, 8-12, 44-47 |
Frontallappen, Stirnlappen |
Functions: Planning, coordination, 'values', motivation, impulse control, power of judgment,
problem solving,
socialisation, speech production, working memory, motor skills, sexual behavior, facial expression... Disorder: Autism S |
~ Prefrontal cortex
|
PFC, Regio frontalis |
Präfrontaler Kortex |
Functions: Executive functions: impulse control, emotion and behavior control, cognition, planning,
'personality', social adjustment, 'appropriate' behavior, goal and value orientation,
power of judgment, differentiation, selection, decision making, providence,
potential outcome orientation Working memory S High number of interconnections between both the Limbic system and the RAS OFC, MPFC (DMFC, VMPFC), pACC, LPFC (DLPFC, VLPFC) - zurück nach oben - |
~~ Orbitofrontal cortex
|
OFC, Cortex orbitofrontalis, BA 10-12, 47 |
Orbitofrontaler Kortex |
Functions: Emotion control, impulse control, (social) adjustment
Appraisal of the emotional and motivational values of environmental information, (while integrating the subject's prior experience), which is crucial in decision-making S Operant Conditioning: the use of consequences (reward, punishment) to modify the occurrence and form of behavior S, reaction to punishers - like ostracism - and reinforcers - like food and praise - (evaluation S, monitoring, learning, storage), and the resulting behavior; context-dependent regulation of amygdala-dependent autonomic and behavioral arousal governed by external cues S; craving (nicotine) S; fear extinction (mOFC) S Selection, comparison, and evaluation of stimuli; prediction error signaling (mOFC, S) and the detection of contingency change; important for outcome-guided behavior: error detection, evaluation of expected outcomes, rapid recognition of unexpected outcomes, and the change of behavior that's called for ("reversal learning" S), learning by mistakes and unexpected outcomes S Decision making, expectancies; sensory integration; access to emotional memory S; episodic memory S * Posterior: emotion recognition; strong connections to the amygdala and anterior parts of the temporal lobe as well as to the sensory association cortex S Interpretation S and processing of environmental emotional and motivational context information S, e.g. facial expressions S, emotion recognition and empathy S; sympathy/ preference (unknown faces) S * Anterolateral: negative affects and obsessions S Disorders: General impairments involving stimulus-reward reversal learning, response inhibition, and ability to judge the appropriateness of one's own behavior in the social context S; Borderline PD S, PTSD, Addiction S, S, Depression S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, (right hemisphere) S, S (dopaminergic hyperfunction), Anxiety Disorders S, Chronic Schizophrenia S, S, (Heterosexual) Pedophilia (hypoactivity) S, S |
- back to top - |
|||
|
~~ Medial PFC
|
MPFC, Cortex medialis, BA 10, 32 |
Medialer PFC |
Functions: Appraisal of affective stimuli (even if they are complex and ambiguous)
S
relating to people (instead of objects); strong connections to the
amygdala
Social cognition and reward, social valence S and classification S "Contextualization" of stimuli; dysregulation of contextualization processes might play a key role in the generation of PTSD symptoms S Processing of positive (not negative) visual stimuli S Consolidation of declarative memory (in connection with Hc) S * Polar part: behavioral aspects of communicative speech production, presumably in understanding of the context of the social interaction (esp. with familiar actors) S Moral judgments (right/ wrong) S, Theory of Mind ToM S, S Disorders: Reality distortion, Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective disorders S, Dissociation (left hemisphere) S, Anxiety Disorders S, PTSD S, Cocaine Addiction S, Anorexia Nervosa S, Autism S |
~~~ Dorsomedial FC
Anatomical terms of location |
DMFC, Cortex dorsomedialis, BA 8, 9 |
Dorsomedialer FC |
Functions: Social cognition: the ability to adopt the other person's perspective
when making judgments (posterior),
self-referential processing (anterior)
S
Left hemisphere: decoupling of one's own from other people's perspectives on the self S Intense social interaction processes (e.g. aggression) S Mentalizing about dissimilar others S |
| ~~~ Ventromedial PFC, Subgenual Cortex | VMPFC, Cortex ventromedialis, um BA 11 (10-13, 25, 32) |
Ventromedialer PFC, Subgenualer PFC |
Functions: Decision making under risk
S,
fear; fear extinction
S
Appraisal of the emotional and motivational values of environmental information S; Affective evaluation (complex display of multiple human faces, (ambiguous) reward related information) S, S, mood-incongruent recall of autobiographical memories S * Anterior: visualization of emotional events in the far future (q.v.: caudate nucleus), and assignment of emotional values to mental representations of future events that pertain to long-term goals S Social cognition S (Reasoning about the minds and motivation of other people, compassion to the suffering opponent S, empathy/ friendship S, self-referential thinking while mentalizing about similar others S, S, self-relatedness S Motor inhibition S Disorders: Borderline PD S, Depression S, S, S, PTSD S; Psychopathology S, Anxiety Disorders S |
- back to top - |
|||
~~~~ Para-anterior Cingulate Cortex
|
pACC | Para-anteriores Cingulum |
Functions: Evaluation and/ or representation of reward value
S
Valence of all stimuli, whether persons or objects S Disorders: Bipolar Disorder S |
|
~~ Lateral PFC
|
LPFC, Cortex lateralis, BA 9, 10 |
Lateraler PFC |
Functions: Stimulus-independent cognitive processing
S
Context-dependent coding of stimuli, representation of contextual information (contexts: task, motivation, reward); integration of the cognitive and the motivational context for adaptive goal-directed behavior S Action monitoring S, Response inhibition S Anticipatory preparation and online adjustment in response to conflicts S Working memory S; categorization S; temporal coordination of several tasks S Disorder: Pedophilia (hypoactivity) S |
| ~~~ Dorsolateral PFC | DLPFC, Cortex dorsolateralis, BA 9, 46 |
Dorsolateraler PFC |
Functions: Conflict monitoring, cognitive control
Response inhibition S, S Spatial working memory; procedural memory S, decision making S, contribution to long-term memory (only for associations) (due to active processing of relationships during encoding) S Strong connections to the ACC Disorders: Schizophrenia S, S, Schizoaffective disorder, Depression S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, Craving (Nicotine) S, Anorexia Nervosa (right hemisphere) S, (Heterosexual) Pedophilia S, S |
| ~~~ Ventrolateral PFC | VLPFC, Cortex ventrolateralis, BA 45 (47, 12) |
Ventrolateraler PFC |
Functions: Response inhibition
S,
Emotion control (due to regulation of amygdala response)
S
Social cognition S, cognitive control of memory (left hemisphere) S, contingency detection S, evaluation and integration of socio-emotional information S, contribution to long-term memory formation S, retrieval of object information from the working memory S, episodic memory formation S, activation during mood-incongruent recall of autobiographical information S, affect labeling may diminish emotional reactivity along a pathway from RVLPFC to MPFC to the amygdala S Rule representation for action selection S, resolution of proactive interference (left hemisphere) S Disorders: Bipolar Disorder S; Autism and Paranoid Schizophrenia (left hemisphere) S |
- back to top - |
|||
~ Motor cortex
|
-- | Motorkortex |
Function: Movement
Disorders: Movement disorders with "plus" and "minus" symptoms, Stuttering S |
| ~~ Primary motor area | M1, BA 4 | Primär-motorische Rinde | Functions: Mainly motor execution processes (control, coordination) S |
| ~~ Secondary motor area | BA 6 | Sekundärer Motorkortex | Functions: Mainly motor preparation and initiation processes (specific movements) S |
| ~~~ Pre-motor area, Premotor cortex |
PMA, BA 6 | Prämotorisches Areal bzw. Prämotorischer Kortex |
Functions: Planning and creation of motion sequences and coordination with both
the cerebellum
and the basal ganglia
using visuospatial
S
as well as sensory information that define parameters such as the appropriate scope of the movement
Movement plannning and execution as well as observation of the same movement/ action in others (via mirror neurons) S Learning by imitation S Response inhibition (Pre-SMA) S |
| ~~~~ Broca's Area, Broca's Region 
|
BA 44, (45) |
Broca-Areal, Broca-Zentrum, Brocasche Sprachregion, Motorisches Sprachzentrum |
Function: Speech (processing, production, and comprehension) Disorder: Broca's Aphasia |
| ~~~~ Frontal Eye Fields | FEF, BA 4-8 | Frontales Augenfeld |
Functions: Eye movements, corresponding with
IPS and SEF (Supplementary EF) Disorders: Eye deviation disorders (Déviation conjuguée, Prévost's sign) |
| ~~~ Supplementary Motor Area | SMA, BA 6 | Supplementär-motorische Rinde | Functions: Motor learning (sequential) S e.g. by observation S, planning, peraparation and initiation (and in part execution) of complex sequential movements S; suppression of movements S |
- back to top - |
|||
1.1.1.5.Temporal lobe
|
TL, Lobus temporalis, BA 15, 20-22, 27, 28, 34-38, 41, 42, 48, 52 |
Temporallappen, Schläfenlappen |
Functions: Hearing, speech
S,
processing of visual information, memory, learning, Theory of Mind ToM
S
* Left hemisphere: Speech functions like comprehension, naming, verbal memory u.a. Ventral stream: Processing of complex visual stimuli like faces (Fusiform gyrus S) and scenes (Parahippocampal gyrus) * Anteroventral: Object recognition * Medial (MTL): declarative/ episodic/ explicit memory/ learning (Hippocampi) - Information transfer from the working memory to the long-term memory, control of spatial memory; configural learning (perirhinal, entorhinal) S, recognition memory (perirhinal: assessment of familiarity; Hippoc.: episodic detail) S * Inferior: Working memory - temporal storage, comparison with the subsequent perceptions; Addiction (Dopamine) S Disorders: * General: Amnesia; Epilepsy (TLE), Huntington's Disease S, Autism S * Medial (MTL, esp. Hippocampus): Impaired autobiographical recollection (only from the recent past) S, Alzheimer's Disease S, Autism S; * Entorhinal: Schizophrenia S, S * Superior: PTSD, Dissociative disorders S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S |
~ Auditory cortex
 |
A1, BA 41, 42 | Primärer auditorischer Kortex | Function: Hearing; Processing of auditory information |
| ~ Wernicke's Area | BA 22, (40, 42) | Wernicke Sprachzentrum |
Functions: Speech comprehension
Disorder: Wernicke's Aphasia |
| ~ Neocortical associative fields | -- | Neokortikale assoziative Areale | Functions: Part of the Association cortex: Recognition of complex non-spatial auditory and visual stimuli (body parts, faces, food...) by means of interconnection of different sensory modalities to one unified impression; hallucinations |
- back to top - |
|||
~ Limbic System
|
Lobus limbicus |
Limbisches System |
Functions: Emotion recognition, processing, regulation and transfer;
drive and arousal; memory;
important part of the reward system; autonomic nervous system regulation;
processing of sensory stimuli (pain, odors etc.) Only the following parts of the Limbic System are located in the Medial TL: Hippocampus, Dentate gyrus, Parahippocampal gyrus and Amygdala. Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Fornix and Mammillary body are integral parts of the Diencephalon. Both the Olfactory bulb and the Cingulate gyrus also belong to the Limbic System. |
~~ Hippocampus
|
Hc, Hippocampus, BA 27, 28, 34-36 |
Hippocampus |
Functions: Encoding, retention and retrieval of spatial and episodic experiences
S;
memory S,
above all episodic and autobiographic
S,
but not procedural, and only in part semantic (controversial,
S,
S,
S);
learning, recognition
S
Encoding and retrieval of relational information in visual short-term memory S Spatial (CA3 subregion, S) and contextual learning and memory S, continuous encoding of ongoing experience, categorization S, pattern separation and pattern completion S Behavioral regulation and inhibition (e.g. of food intake for body weight regulation) S Speech comprehension through mnemonic encoding of narrative information S Disorders: Amnesia, PTSD S and other stress-related disorders S; Alzheimer's Disease S, Depression S, S, Anxiety Disorders S, Bipolar Disorder S, S, Dissociative disorders S, Obesity S, Tourette Syndrome S, Cushing's syndrome S, Multiple Sclerosis S; Huntington's Disease (posterior) S |
| ~~~ Dentate Gyrus | DG, Gyrus dentatus |
Gyrus dentatus |
Functions: Memory formation;
regulation of stress responses
S,
neurogenesis even in adults
S Geometry of the environment S, spatial pattern separation during learning S Disorders: PTSD S, stress-related disorders (above all due to the suppression of neurogenesis by exposure to high levels of corticosterone S), Depression S, S, S (cognitive aspects S), Déjà vu, Epilepsy S, Alzheimer's Disease S, S |
~~ Amygdala
|
Amg, Amygdala |
Amygdala |
Functions: Emotion, danger, disgust
S,
fear S
(conditioning) S;
Operant conditioning
S
(closely connected to the pOFC
S)
Processing of emotional and social information S, Emotion recognition in others, emotional assessment of (amongst others negative S) facial expressions (are they threatening or not?) S, empathy S Modulation of memory-related processes (both enhancement and suppression of impulses) in other brain regions, such as the Hippocampus S, S; recognition of negative items S Important part of the reward system S Impact on the Autonomic Nervous System, homeostasis (OFC -> Amygdala, S) Motivation S Disorders: Depression S, S, Borderline PD S (hyperactivity), PTSD S, Epilepsy S, Schizophrenia S, S, Autism and Paranoid Schizophrenia (right hemisphere) S, Autism (left hemisphere) S, Dissociative disorders S, Tourette Syndrome S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, Bipolar Disorder S, Cocaine Addiction S, Alcohol Addiction S, S (serotonergic system), Anxiety Disorders S |
- back to top - |
|||
1.1.1.6. Cingulate gyrus/cortex
|
CgG, Gyrus cinguli, BA 23, 24, 26, 29-33 |
Cingulum |
Functions: See ACC and PCC:
Detection of errors, risk and conflict management,
response inhibition, cognitive control, adaptation, Theory of Mind ToM (amongst others); Important part of the Limbic System Grief S; Pain, disgust (cognitive recognition - even by just observing scenes - and processing) S |
| ~ Anterior Cingulate Cortex | ACC, BA 24, 32, 33 | Anteriores Cingulum |
Functions: Reaction to committed errors
S,
'Error detection', Error prediction (error likelihood and magnitude of the consequences)
S
Risk prediction, cognitive control, emotion regulation S, conflict monitoring, adjustments in behavior S, above all conflict detection between simultaneously active, competing representations S, minimization of distractions S Conflict -> acts as teaching signal for avoidance learning -> will bias behavioral decision making toward cognitively efficient tasks and strategies S Task and response conflict and anticipation S; the conflict signal detected by the ACC is transmitted to other brain regions, such as the DLPFC, to increase the level of cognitive control S Information transfer: to the auditory association cortices, brain stem vocalization, and autonomic structures, in pathways that may mediate emotional communication and autonomic activation in emotional arousal S Problem solving, concentration upon a task Response inhibition S, self-regulation, emotion regulation S Fear (rACC, gating the efficiency of amygdala-dependent auditory fear conditioning learning) S, S; pain S, S Dwelling on one's own thoughts and notions (inner life), motivation Important part of the reward system: anticipation of rewards, (reinforcement-related) decision making S, e.g. regarding how much effort to invest for rewards S, action evaluation, decision making regarding reward and punishment S, learning through consequences, avoidance learning S, behavioral adaptation after delivered punishments S Craving (Nicotine) S Empathy (with pain) S Theory of Mind ToM (bilateral) S Autonomic functions: modulation of blood pressure and heart rate amongst others * Dorsal=cognitive S, cognitive processing of stimuli, behavioral control S, attention, working memory, error detection, conflict monitoring S, response selection, anticipation of incoming information S, increasing attention to relevant stimuli S * Ventral=affective S, attention on the internal emotional and motivational status, regulation of autonomic responses S * Anterior=executive * Posterior=evaluative * Rostral: projection of positive future events, optimism S, detecting response conflict caused by irrelevant stimuli S Disorders: Borderline PD S, S, PTSD S, S (rostral), Schizophrenia S, S, S, ADHD, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, S, S, S, Autism S, Depression (BA 25, S, S, S, S), Anorexia Nervosa S, Bipolar Disorder S, S, Addiction (Cocaine, rostral) S, Addiction (Nicotine, Dopamine) S |
| ~ Posterior Cingulate Cortex | PCC, BA 23, 31 | Posteriores Cingulum |
Functions: (Episodic
S)
memory (caudal) S,
Speech comprehension and production (due to declarative memory functions during communication)
S
(strong interactions with medial temporal cortex)
S
Theory of Mind ToM S Pain (rostral) S Disgust (cognitive recognition - even during mere observation of scenes - and processing) S Recognition of both personally familiar objects and places S, dPCC: Orientation in space, vPCC: Processing of information and objects that are relevant for the self; introspection S Disorders: Early Alzheimer's Disease (retrosplenial/ posterior) S, Anxiety Disorders S, Alexithymia S, Schizophrenia S (verbal memory) S, Anorexia Nervosa S, Addiction (Cocaine) S; Autism S |
- back to top - |
|||
| 1.1.2.Basal ganglia, Basal nuclei  |
Ganglia basales, Nuclei basales |
Basalganglien, Basalkerne |
Functions: Motor skills; motion selection, initiation and control:
information transfer from the (P)FC and the
parietal cortex via the
basal ganglia and the thalamus up to the
SMA (part of the motor cortex);
above all inhibition of unwanted/ inappropriate movements but also
coordination of volitional movements, postures
S
Procedural memory Attention (dopamine) S; processing of different emotional and cognitive stimuli (reward system, reinforcement, Addiction, habits) S (see below) Modulation of pain perception S Disorders: Cerebral palsy, Dystonia; Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's Disease S; Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S; ADHD S, S, Tourette Syndrome S, Stuttering, Wilson's disease; Schizophrenia S; Depression S; Sexual disorders S, Neurodegeneration associated with brain iron accumulation S 1.1.2.1. Claustrum 1.1.2.2. Striatum |
|
1.1.2.1. Claustrum
|
Cl, Claustrum |
Claustrum |
Functions: Consciousness; joining of different attributes into one object
(sensory synchronization);
synchronization of different perceptual, cognitive and motor modalities
S;
claustrocortical network for sensory integration
S
Processing of visual sexual stimuli |
| 1.1.2.2. Striatum | Str, Corpus striatum |
Streifenkörper |
Functions: 'Entrance' to the basal ganglia;
strong interconnections to the neocortex; attention -> many dopamine receptors
S
Working memory S; skill acquisition (cognitive, perceptive, motor) S Executive: Interplay of motivation, emotion, cognition and motion on a neuronal level Activation by rewards S (dopamine, ventral) S and by aversive, novel, unexpected or very intense stimuli Sexual arousal and behavior S * Ventral: Preparation, initiation and execution of reward-related behavior as a result of successful integration of (relevant) emotional and cognitive information (strong connections to the OFC and the ACC) S even when rewards were cued but omitted S * Dorsal: Reward system, adjustments after delivered rewards S, categorization S Disorders: Striatofrontal dysfunction: Depression S, S, Chronic Schizophrenia S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S (serotonergic hypofunction), Borderline PD S, Pedophilia S, ADHD S, Tremor S, Parkinson's Disease (Dopamine), Huntington's Disease (GABA) S, S; Athetosis, Dyskinesia; Addiction (Dopamine) S, S; Anorexia Nervosa S |
- back to top - |
|||
|
~ Caudate Nucleus
|
Cd, Nucleus caudatus | Caudatus |
Functions: Movement control
S,
Motor memory (Dopamine)
S
Language control (left: changes in the language or the meaning of words) S; Speech processing (e.g. ambivalence) S Perceptual skill learning S; Reaction to positive and negative feedback during learning S, left hemisphere: detection of a change in the 'context' and the subsequent formulation of a new 'rule' S; the linking of action to outcome S Obsessions, compulsions S Memory S, working memory S; Visualization of emotional events in the near future; concrete simulations of action plans to achieve rewarding situations in the near future S Love S, motherly love S Pain S Disorders: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, S; Major Depression (left hemisphere) S, Parkinson's Disease (Serotonin) S, Huntington's Disease S, S; Schizophrenia S; Autism S; Addiction (Cocaine) S |
| ~ Lentiform nucleus, Lenticular nucleus |
SLn, Nucleus lentiformis | Linsenförmiger Kern | Disorder: Parkinson's Disease S |
|
~~ Globus pallidus
|
GP, Globus pallidus | Pallidum |
Functions: Motion facilitation (lateral segment) and motion inhibition (medial segment);
acts as an "antagonist" of the Striatum; sends inhibiting impulses
to the Thalamus and the Nucleus subthalamicus Important part of the reward system S Sexual arousal and behavior S Disorders: Tourette Syndrome (GABA) S, Parkinson's Disease (GPI) S, Huntington's Disease S, Anhedonia/ Depression S; Dyskinesia S, Dystonia S, Tremor, Acampsia, Bradykinesia; Addiction (Cocaine; ventral) S, loss of craving S; Pedophilia S, Progressive supranuclear palsy S |
| ~~ Nucleus accumbens | NAC, Nucleus accumbens | Nucleus accumbens |
Functions: Important part of the reward system,
emotional learning, operant conditioning, motivation
S,
self-reference
S;
sympathy/ preference (unknown faces)
S;
empathy/ friendship
S;
craving S
Disorders: Addiction S, Depression S, S; Bipolar Disorder S |
| ~~ Putamen
|
Pu, Putamen | Schalenkörper |
Functions: Reinforcement learning;
efficiency S
Motor memory (Dopamine) S Speech processing (e.g. ambivalence) S Disorders: Huntington's Disease S, Parkinson's Disease (Serotonin) S, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S; Addiction (Cocaine) S |
| 1.1.3. Olfactory bulb | MOB, Bulbus olfactorius | Riechkolben | Function: Smell Disorder: Dysosmia |
- back to top - |
|||
1.2. Diencephalon
|
DiE, Diencephalon |
Zwischenhirn |
Functions: Control of the visceral functions and the autonomic nervous system;
immune system modulation; "switch point" for information transfers between different brain regions;
motor function amongst others 1.2.1. Thalamus 1.2.2. Epithalamus (1.2.2.1. Epiphysis) 1.2.3. Subthalamus 1.2.4. Metathalamus 1.2.5. Hypothalamus (1.2.5.1. Hypophysis; 1.2.5.2. Mammillary body) 1.2.6. Fornix |
1.2.1. Thalamus
|
Th, Thalamus |
Thalamus |
Functions: Part of the reward system: motor adjustment following delivered reward/ punishment
S
Attention (Dopamine) S; Speech processing (e.g. ambivalence) S, working memory S Facial emotion identification S 'Pessimistic' bias: internal adaptation and preparation processes in order to act according to potential or certain unpleasant events (medial) S Sexual arousal and behavior S Craving (Nicotine) S Modulation of pain perception S Disorders: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S, S, S, S; Parkinson's Disease S, Tourette Syndrome S, Huntington's Disease S; Schizophrenia S, S, S, S; Insomnia S; Multiple Sclerosis S; Autism S; Pedophilia S, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (dorsomedial nucleus) S |
| 1.2.1.1. Anterior Thalamic Nuclei
anteroventral (AV), anteromedial (AM), anterodorsal (AD) |
ATN, Nuclei anterioris
Nucleus ventralis anterolateralis, Nucleus anteromedialis, Nucleus dorsalis anterolateralis |
Anteriore Thalamuskerne
Ventraler anterolateraler, Anteromedialer, Dorsaler anterolateraler Thalamuskern |
Functions: Influence on the activity in areas of the cortex responsible for memory processes
S
Disorders: Epilepsy S, Amnesia S, S, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome S; Schizophrenia S; Anterior Thalamic Infarction: Palipsychism, Nominal aphasia, Apathy, anterograde Amnesia S |
| 1.2.2. Epithalamus | Eth, Epithalamus | Epithalamus |
Functions: "Relay station" for information flows between the
various regions of the olfactory system,
as well as from the brain stem and the pineal gland
S Circadian rhythms (pineal gland); smell (Habenula); pupil dilation in response to light (pretectal area); vision (Commissura posterior) |
| 1.2.2.1. Pineal Gland, Pineal Body 
|
Pi, Epiphysis cerebri, Glandula pinealis, Corpus pineale | Epiphyse, Zirbeldrüse |
Functions: Melatonin production (Sleep-wake cycle and other time-dependent,
seasonal rhythms) Other melatonin functions: possibly memory formation, long-term potentiation, synaptic plasticity (amongst other functions) within the hippocampus; consciousness, stress S; menopause S; aging S; immune system S; protection of the upper portion of the gastrointestinal tract S; possibly antioxidant S, antidepressive, anxiolytic and nootropic effect S; Influence on the insulin secretion S Disorders: Disturbances of the circadian rhythm; premature sexual maturation; Enhancement or inhibition of sexual development; Cysts -> headaches S, papillary tumor of the pineal region S |
- back to top - |
|||
| 1.2.3. Subthalamus | Sth, Subthalamus | Subthalamus |
Functions: Gross motor skill control Subthalamic nucleus: Nerve cell body for the control of various muscle activities Efferences: Striatum, dorsal part of the Thalamus, Red Nucleus and Substantia nigra (Mesencephalon); Afferences: Substantia nigra, Striatum Disorders: Parkinson's Disease S, Hemiballism S, (Choreo-)Ballism S |
| 1.2.3.1. Subthalamic nucleus | STN, Nucleus subthalamicus | Subthalamischer Kern |
Functions: Motor functions Control, "pace maker of the basal ganglia" (with globus pallidus) -> action selection Disorders: Parkinson's Disease S, S, S, Hemiballism S, Tourette Syndrome S; increased impulsivity when faced with decision conflicts S, Progressive supranuclear palsy S |
| 1.2.4. Metathalamus | Mth, Metathalamus | Metathalamus |
Functions: * CGL, lateral geniculate nucleus: Vision S, S; reflectory head and eye movements, pupillary reflex, sleep-wake cycle * CGM, medial geniculate nucleus: Hearing, pain signal transmission S Disorders: Vision disorders S; Dyslexia (visual attention shift) S; Parkinson's Disease S |
- back to top - |
|||
1.2.5. Hypothalamus
|
Hth, Hypothalamus |
Hypothalamus |
Functions: Important control center for the autonomic nervous system;
connects the nervous system with the endocrine system via the
pituitary gland Strong connections to the pituitary gland, to the autonomic nerve centers in the brain stem and the limbic system ANS: Maintenance of homeostasis - neuronal, hormonal and immune-regulatory: * Diuresis (the increased production of urine by the kidney) * Blood pressure * Hormonal regulation * Osmolarity * Body temperature * Heart rate * Circulatory system, gastrointestinal tract, bladder * Fluid balance * Pupil expansion and so on S, S Functions of nuclei (some of the nuclei are sexually dimorphic) Regulation of elementary behavioral patterns: * Food intake (thirst and hunger) * Exploration * Eroticization and sexual behavior * Rage S, anger * Motherly behavior, Milk ejection reflex Double centers for regulation of (among others): * Hunger - Satiety * Lust - Aversion * Alertness - Sleep; circadian rhythms * Approach - Flight * Parasympathetic center/ sympathetic center... S Stress response (part of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)) with Corticotropin-releasing hormones (CRH) and Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) S Affective behavior and memory functions S, S Disorders: stress- and trauma-related (PTSD...) S, S, Alcohol Addiction (serotonergic system) S, Pedophilia (hypoactivity) S, Depression S; Fever; Obesity S, Migraine S |
|
1.2.5.1. Pituitary Gland, Hypophysis
|
Glandula pituitaria |
Hypophyse, Hirnanhangsdrüse |
Functions: Hormone production; Regulation of the neuroendocrine system Disorders: Endocrine diseases: Hypopituitarism S, Cushing's Syndrome S, Acromegaly, Regulation disorders, abnormal growth, Infertility, Diabetes insipidus centralis; Vision disorders (due to pituitary tumors) S ... |
1.2.5.2. Mammillary body
|
MMB, Corpus mamillare | Mamillarkörper |
Functions: (Episodic
S)
memory; above all recognition memory (together with the anterior
and dorsomedial thalamic nuclei)
S;
spatial memory/ learning
S Sleep S Disorders: Amnesia S, Alcoholism S (Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome S), Autism, Alzheimer's Disease S, Obstructive sleep apnea S, Anxiety Disorders S, Epilepsy S |
| ~ Anterior pituitary, Adenohypophysis | AHP, Adenohypophyse | Hypophysenvorderlappen |
Functions: Hormone production: * TSH (Thyroid gland) * ACTH (-> Glucocorticoids) * FSH (Ovum, Sperm) * LH (Sex hormones) * STH (Metabolism, growth, cell differentiation) * Prolactin (Lactation) * MSH (Melanocytes) S Disorders: Sheehan's Syndrome S; Cushing's Syndrome; Addison's disease (ACTH -> Cortisol) |
| ~ Posterior pituitary, Neurohypophysis | NHP, Neurohypophyse | Hypophysenhinterlappen |
Functions: Hormone production: * Oxytocin (Labor contractions, lactation) * Vasopressin (ADH, AVP) (Fluid balance regulation by the kidneys; Blood pressure regulation; male aggression) Stress, Depression (HPA axis, see Hypothalamus) S Disorders: Diabetes insipidus S; Prostate disorders (Oxytocin) S |
| 1.2.6. Fornix | Fx, Fornix | Fornix |
Functions: Coordination (Contralateral connection of hemispheres) Working memory, learning (transfer of items from the short-term to the long-term memory) S Hippocampus function selection and modulation through dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin and acetylcholine * Course (anterior fibers): -> Hippocampus (memory, learning) -> Hypothalamus (homeostasis) -> Mammillary body (recognition) -> Thalamus (relay station) -> Cingulate cortex (cognitive control) * (posterior fibers): -> Septal nuclei (reward, reinforcement) -> Nucleus accumbens (reward, conditioning, motivation) Disorders: Amnesia, Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome S; Schizophrenia S, S, S (controversial S), Alzheimer's Disease S, Parkinson's Disease S |
- back to top - |
|||
2. Midbrain
|
Mesencephalon |
Mittelhirn |
Functions: Transfer of sensory stimuli
(e.g. visual, auditory) to other brain regions Motor control, motivation, drive, habituation (Dopamine) S Optics, eye muscle movements |
| 2.1. Periaqueductal gray | PAG, Substantia grisea centralis | Periaquäduktales Grau |
Functions: Descending pain suppression (Opioid receptors)
S,
S,
S,
Empathy with Pain S Defense, fear S, S, Flight reflex, rage S Blood pressure regulation S Motherly love S, Reproductive behavior S Vocalization S Disorders: Panic disorder S, Depression (5-HTT) S, Pedophilia S, Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome S |
2.2. Tectum
|
Tec, Tectum mesencephali | Mittelhirndach |
Functions: Conduction of optic and auditory impulses;
eye movement control; rapid processing and integration of
sensory impulses and emotions (Sources: see SC and IC) |
| 2.2.1. Superior colliculus | SC, Colliculi superiores | Obere (vordere) zwei Hügel |
Functions: Blindsight S,
S,
conduction of visual impulse (e.g. to the Amygdala
S,
S),
search functions S,
eye and head movement control (optic reflexes, saccadic movements)
S,
S,
S,
Interhemispheric processing of sensorimotor information
S
Multisensory S, S, audiovisual integration S (synchronous signals S, speech S); joining of different sensory information in order to improve (spatial) orientation/ localization S, S Movement sequences S Disorders: Eye movement disorders; ADHD S, Autism S, Huntington's Disease S, Alzheimer's Disease S |
| 2.2.2. Inferior colliculus | IC, Colliculi inferiores | Untere zwei Hügel |
Functions: Transfer and processing of auditory impulses
S,
S,
sound source lateralization
S Disorders: Hearing impairment S, Tinnitus S, S |
- back to top - |
|||
| 2.3. Cerebral Peduncle | CP, Pedunculi cerebri | Pedunculi cerebri |
Functions: Motor functions, movement (e.g. of legs
S):
Motor information transfer
S
to other brain and body regions:
Motor centers -> Cerebral peduncles ->
Thalamic nuclei Disorders: Locked-In Syndrome S, Hemiparesis S, Tumors S, Multiple System Atrophy S |
2.3.1. Midbrain Tegmentum
|
MTg, Tegmentum mesencephali | Mittelhirnhaube |
Functions: Important part of the extrapyramidal motor system, motor function control,
posture, movement adjustment Awareness and attention S Autonomic nervous functions S |
| ~ Red Nucleus | Nucleus ruber | Nucleus ruber |
Functions: Motor coordination (above all shoulder and upper arm but also forearm
and hand), arm movements during walking, crawling (baby); movement initiation
S Muscle tone, body posture Circadian rhythm S 'Pessimistic' bias: internal adaptation and preparation processes in order to act according to potential or certain unpleasant events S Neuronal loop: Motor cortex -> Red nucleus -> Spinal cord "Feedback loop" Cerebellum -> Red nucleus -> Olivary body -> Cerebellum (rubro-olivary tract) for precise movement control Afferences: Cortex, sensorimotor cortex, PFC S; Cerebellum (Dentate nucleus -> voluntary motor function, Emboliform nucleus -> postural motor system), Superior colliculi, Globus pallidus, Thalamus, Vestibular nuclei among others Efferences: * Rubro-olivary tract: Olivary body, (-> Spinal cord, Cerebellum); * Rubroreticular tract: Reticular Formation (Rhombencephalon); * Rubrothalamic tract: Thalamus * Rubrospinal tract: Spinal cord among others Disorders: Intention tremor, Reduction of muscle tone, Huntington's Disease S, (Choreo-)Ballism S, Stuttering S |
|
~ Cerebral crus
|
Ccr, Crus cerebri, Pl. Crura cerebri |
Großhirnschenkel |
Functions: Part of the pyramidal system: Fine motor skills, movement control of muscle groups,
motor abilities (esp. pyramidal tract) Vision, audition, eye movements Internal capsule: * Temporopontine tract (Temporal lobe -> Pontine nuclei) * Corticospinal tract (Pyramidal tract: Cortex -> Internal capsule -> Medulla oblongata -> Spinal cord) * Corticobulbar tract (Cortex -> Cranial nerve motor nuclei for the face) * Frontopontine tract (Frontal lobes -> Pontine nuclei) * Parts of the auditory and visual pathway, eye movements (Oculomotor nerve, IIIrd cranial nerve) * Thalamic peduncles (Thalamus -> Frontal lobes, Occipital lobes, Temporal lobes, Postcentral gyrus) * Fibers to the subcortical centers (Red nucleus, Reticular formation, Vestibular nuclei) Disorder: (Contralateral) hemiparesis |
| ~ Black substance, Soemering | SN, Substantia nigra, Locus niger |
Soemmerring-Ganglion |
Functions: Part of the extrapyramidal motor system - motor control: * Afferences from the Motor cortex, Premotor cortex, Caudate nucleus and Putamen * Efferences to the Striatum, Thalamus Different neurotransmitters, esp. high dopamine level; Dopamine: Movement planning and initiation ('starter function'), motivation, drive etc. S, S Part of the reward system (Dopamine) S Disorders: Synucleinopathies: Parkinson's Disease (Dopamine S, S, Iron S, Glutathione S), Lewy Body Dementia (nigrostratal) S, Multiple system atrophy (MSA-P), Pure autonomic failure S, Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation S; Huntington's Disease S, Stuttering S, Cocaine abuse (in the uterus) S, Alcoholism (MCP-1) S, Alzheimer's Disease (iron) S, PSP: Progressive supranuclear palsy S, (Choreo-)Ballism S, Tourette Syndrome S |
- back to top - |
|||
3. Hindbrain |
Rhombencephalon |
Rautenhirn |
Function: Connects the brain to the spinal cord Disorder: Rhombencephalosynapsis |
3.1.Metencephalon |
Met, Metencephalon |
Hinterhirn |
= Pons + Cerebellum Functions: * Partly fourth ventricle; Disorder: Hydrocephalus * Trigeminus nerve (Nervus trigeminus, fifth cranial nerve): Eyes, upper and lower jaw, face, chewing; Disorders: Trigeminal neuralgia, Sensitivity losses, Difficulty chewing or swallowing, Herpes zoster ophthalmicus, Absent corneal reflex * Abducens nerve (Nervus abducens, sixth cranial nerve): Lateral rectus muscle of the eye; Disorders: Abducens Nerve Paresis -> Esotropia (inward squint) * Facial nerve (Nervus facialis, seventh cranial nerve): Facial expression, taste, hearing, head glands (tears, nose, palate, lower jaw, tongue amongst others) * Partly vestibulocochlear nerve, eighth cranial nerve): Hearing, equilibrium (balance) Disorders: Hearing impairment, Vertigo, Tinnitus, impaired balance, Headache, Difficulty walking, Ataxia, Nystagmus... |
3.1.1.Cerebellum
|
Cb, Cerebellum | Kleinhirn |
Functions: 1) Neocerebellum/ Cerebrocerebellum: * Integration of sensory perception, control and coordination of (complex) muscle movements S * Movement planning, Timing S, S * Evaluation of sensory information for action execution * Eyelid movement S, Vestibulo-ocular reflex * Afferences from the Cortex (esp. Parietal lobes) * Efferences: ventrolateral Thalamus -> Premotor-, Motor cortex, Red nucleus 2) Archicerebellum/ Vestibulocerebellum: Balance, Eye movements S 3) Paleocerebellum/ Spinocerebellum: * Muscle tone, body and limb movements S * Proprioception (from the spinal cord, nervus trigeminus, visual and auditory centers); * Awareness and anticipation of the position of body parts in space * Visuospatial skills: Proprioceptive feedback of the position in space; spatial orientation, temporospatial models and predictions (posterior) S, Transformation of sensory space-time coordinates into motor coordinates (Tensor Network Theory) S, S Cognition: Foundation for the development of cognitive and affective skills, for instance: * Attention, * Learning and * Memory (above all complex motor skills) S, S, S * Procedural learning and memory S * Speech processing * Processing of music and other temporary sensory stimuli 4) White matter nuclei: * Dentate nucleus * Fastigial nucleus * Interposed nucleus (Emboliform nucleus + Globose nucleus) Dentate nucleus: * Planning, initiation and control of deliberate movements * Afferences: Premotor cortex, Supplementary motor area * Efferences: Upper parts of the cerebral peduncle (Superior cerebellar peduncles -> Red nucleus -> Thalamus) 5) Nerve cell types: * GABAergic (inhibitory): Stellate, basket, purkinje and golgi cells * Glutamatergic (excitory): Granular cells Disorders: Movement and coordination Disorders: Loss of fine motor control, Lack of balance, Postural deformities, Ataxia, Multiple Sclerosis S; Autism S (Aquaporin 4 S), Asperger's Syndrome S; Disturbance of memory S; ADHD S; Huntington's Disease S; Alcoholism S (Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome); Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder S; Olivopontocerebellar atrophy, Strokes S, Epilepsy S, Pancreatic beta cell agenesis S, Nystagmus S |
- back to top - |
|||
3.1.2.Pons
|
Pons | Pons |
Functions: Passage way for all nerve fibers travelling (crossing) from the left
to the right and vice versa
Transfer of sensory information between the Cerebellum and the Cerebrum Arousal control Breathing regulation Dreaming S Cranial nerve nuclei: * Pontine nuclei: Relay station for the connections between Telencephalon and the Cerebellum * Motor nuclei of trigeminal nerve: Mastication (chewing) * Abducens nuclei: Lateral eye movement * Facial nuclei: Facial expression * Cochlear nuclei: Hearing * Vestibular nuclei: Thalamus, Cerebellum, Eye muscle nuclei, Spinal cord Disorders: Central pontine myelinolysis S with Dysphagia (difficulty in swallowing) and Dysarthria (motor speech disorder characterised by poor articulation), Balance disorders, Locked-in Syndrome S, Ataxia S, Nicotine dependence (Tegmentum pontis) S, PTSD S, Panic disorders S, Periventricular leukomalacia S, Internuclear ophthalmoplegia |
~ Reticular formation
|
MRF, Formatio reticularis | Retikuläre Formation |
Functions: Neural network in the brain stem: Mesencephalon,
Pons, Medulla Oblongata;
Nerve signals to the Cortex Regulation of the Autonomic Nerve System: Breathing rate, heart rate, gastrointestinal functions Sleep-wake-cycle S, Arousal, attention, tiredness, consciousness, motivation Pain modulation Motor functions (walking, eating...) Sexual activities Disorders: PTSD (Hypervigilance) S, Hypovigilance |
| ~~ Locus caeruleus | LC, Locus Caeruleus, Locus Coeruleus (old), Locus ceruleus (Amercian English) | Locus Caeruleus |
Functions: High Norepinephrine: Arousal, neuronal activation: Noradrenergic
(excitatory) reactions to pain, emotions and so on Emotion processing (Cingulate cortex, Amygdala) Homeostasis (Hypothalamus) Physiological fear and stress reactions: Norepinephrine release -> Cognitive functions (PFC) -> Motivation (Nucleus accumbens); -> Activation of the HPA axis (Norepinephrine -> Hypothalamus CRF -> ACTH -> Cortisol synthesis); -> Inhibition of the parasympathetic and activation of the sympathetic nervous system (Brain stem) REM sleep Afferences: Hypothalamus, Cingulate cortex, Amygdala, Cortex (esp. MPFC), Cerebellum amongst others Efferences: Reticular Formation, Spinal cord, Brain stem, Cerebellum, Hypothalamus, Thalamic nuclei, Amygdala, Basal telencephalon, Cortex amongst others Disorders: Alzheimer's Disease S, Bipolar Disorder (Norepinephrine, Serotonin) S, Depression, Fear and panic disorders; PTSD and other stress related disorders S |
3.2. Myelencephalon |
MO, Myelencephalon, Medulla oblongata |
Nachhirn, verlängertes Rückenmark |
Functions: * Fourth ventricle * Glossopharyngeal nerve, ninth cranial nerve: Tongue, pharynx, swallowing, parotid gland * Vagus nerve, tenth cranial nerve: Parasympathetic nervous system, viscera * Accessory nerve, eleventh cranial nerve: Trapezius muscle, sternocleidomastoid muscle * Hypoglossus nerve, twelfth cranial nerve): Tongue movement * Vestibulocochlear nerve, eighth cranial nerve: transmits sound and equilibrium information from the inner ear to the brain Disorders: Sudden infant death syndrome (Serotonin) S, Wallenberg's syndrome S |
- back to top - |
|||
Brain stem |
Truncus cerebri |
Hirnstamm |
Disorders: Anxiety/ Panic Disorders S, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease S |
| ~ Mesencephalon, ~ Pons, ~ Medulla oblongata
|
as above | wie oben | Functions: quod vide |
| ~~ Olive, Olivary Body | Olive | Olive |
Functions: * Inferior olivary complex/ nucleus): - Part of the olivo-cerebellar system - Motor functions, learning (movement coordination, transfer of movement errors to the Cerebellum) - Afferences: Red nucleus, Motor cortex * Superior olivary nucleus - Part of the Pons - Part of the auditory pathway: Sound source localization Disorders: Ataxia (coordination disorders) S; Auditory Perception Disorders (directional hearing); Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in infants (Sudden infant death syndrome) due to prenatal smoking S, Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome S |
| ~~ Pyramid | Pyramis | Pyramis | Functions: Pyramidal (corticospinal) tract: Motor functions: Control of the fine voluntary (and in part involuntary) movement of the limbs; control of (voluntary) body posture adjustments |
- back to top - |
|||
External Link Disclaimer: We as the creators of Brain-Maps.com are not responsible for the contents or reliability of any linked websites and do not necessarily endorse the views expressed within them. The listing of a link shall not be taken as endorsement of any kind. We cannot guarantee that these links will work all of the time and we have no control over the availability of linked pages.
Please note: While we as the creators of Brain-Maps.com make every effort to post the most accurate and reliable information, we do not guarantee or warrant that the information on this web site is complete, accurate or up-to-date. We assume no responsibility for the use or application of any posted material. This web site is intended solely for the purpose of electronically providing both the public and scientists with brain-related information and convenient access to the data resources. We assume no responsibility for any error, omissions or other discrepancies between the electronic and printed versions of documents.
We do not provide individual advice or counseling, whether medical, legal, or otherwise. If you are seeking specific advice or counseling, you should contact a licensed medical practitioner or professional. For comments, corrections or suggestions please send us an e-mail »